Why Was Religion So Important To the Ottoman Empire

The Ottoman Empire began in earnest in 1299 in the river valley of Sakarya by a man named Osman. He created a confederation of the Turkish tribes connected by their shared Islamic faith and urgent passion to spread their religious beliefs, declaring himself the first Sultan.  He was the beginning of the driving force that was one of the most populous and longest empires in our history lasting for six centuries.  During their reign of dominance, they began with the severely weakened Sultanate of Selijuq run by Persians of Anatolia and equated with the downfall of the Byzantine Empire.  The Ottoman Empire was so powerfully organized in its attacks and methodology of control that it singlehandedly changed the power of a singular Christian European society to an Islamic direction. At the height of its power, it contained 29 provinces and controlled territory in Southeast Europe, Western Asia, and North Africa.  Charles Darwin so aptly stated,” Remember what risks the nations of Europe ran, not so many centuries ago of being overwhelmed by the Turks.”

Firstly, religion was important to all of Europe, Africa, and Eastern Asia prior, during, and after the life of the Ottoman Empire.  Religion was a quintessential part of human existence from the time they were born, taught by their parents and passed on generation to generation.  The Turks believed in Islam which they considered to not only be a religion, but also a complete way of life.  The Turkish were determined if at all possible, to convert all other religions to theirs in the lands they had conquered.  It is to their credit, they were quite tolerant of other religious beliefs within their empire for those who simply felt too strongly about their existing faiths to convert.

The Ottoman Empire began as a group of Turks known as Muslims because of their faith in Islam.  They fervently believed in one, unique incomparable God who had complete authority over human destiny and in life after death.  They believed only through Islam, you learned mercy, forgiveness, and peace. They believed in the chain of 17 prophets that included Abraham, Moses, and Jesus but especially believed God’s final eternal message to mankind came from the Prophet Mohammad through the archangel Gabriel.  They believed they were giving God their complete submission to his will, referring to him as ‘Allah’.  They followed the Devine Law known as Sharia to the letter knowing doing so would please God and protect their souls. They thoroughly believed their powers of persuasion, observation and intelligence making them a super power was purely due to the power of Islam.  Under the Muslim millet, any and all Muslims regardless of common heritage, language, or citizenship prospered beautifully under the Ottoman Empire as they were all treated equally and given the same privileges. 

In the Quran, millet was always referred to as religion and community; its actual meaning is nation stemming from the Arabic word millah.  It alluded to all religions; Christian, Judaism, Muslim, and I suppose, even non-believers.  Bear in mind, the millet system was already in existence when Ottoman conquered Constantinople, they merely continued the practice as they were hard driven soldiers and not in the least bit interested in the internal and private affairs of inferior people who were non-believers of Islam. The system under Islamic rules, allowed all minorities of other faiths to rule themselves with separate legal courts concerning individual law with little interference from the Ottoman government as long as a Muslim was not involved in the case.   By the nineteenth century, the two largest millets were Muslim and Greek Orthodox.

After 1,100 years in power, the primarily Christian Byzantine Empire was crushed with the capture of Constantinople in 1453 by Sultan Mehmet and became the Ottoman’s capital.  This had a tremendous effect on Christian Europe. In 1454, Mehmet established the first Greek Orthodox millet which was comprised of all orthodox in one single community in spite of the language difference, ethnic backgrounds and the fact that the religious chain of command was definitely Greek dominated.  This included; Greek Orthodox, Albanians, Macedonians, Vlachs, Georgians, Serbs, Romanians, Arab Christians and Bulgarians.  Mehmed II appointed Gennadios II Scholarios as the Ecumenical Patriarch, known as the Greek Patriarch of Constantinople. The devout orthodox followed him to the letter as he was recognized as the highest religious and political leader of all Orthodox peoples of the Sultan of the Ottoman.  The Patriarch was considered the successor of Saint Andrew the Apostle.    It is their belief God revealed himself in Jesus, the incarnation of Christ, his crucifixion and resurrection.  Orthodox means right belief or right thinking.  Their approach to theology, tradition and worship was drawn in part from the Greeks, Middle Eastern, Russia, and Slav regions.  They ardently believe the Holy Spirit is in and as the guide to the Church working through the whole body of the Church, as well as through priests and bishops.  The Orthodox follow the Old Testament of the Bible using the ancient Jewish translation into Greek called the Septuagint and sing their prayers to the Eucharist.  All of the above orthodox fervently followed their beliefs for the safe passage of their souls into heaven with Jesus.

Without question, the Ottoman Empire survived 38 Sunni Sultans and was controlled by religion.  The Turks would have preferred all of their conquered subjects to believe exactly as they did and dreamt of a world under Islam.  They often took Christian boys and converted them to Muslim to serve under the Sultan, and hundreds of others after converting, were trained and educated to serve the military. Because Islam was the dominant religion, certain practices had to be followed; only Muslims could rule, Muslims absolutely could not convert to other religions, non-Muslims could not attempt to convert Muslims without suffering serious consequences, and non- Muslims attire was different than Muslims.  Another difference was the fact adult Christians and Jews living in an Islamic state were required to pay a special tax called the jizya that Muslims did not have to pay.  This tax was paid in agreement between the Christians and the Muslims for tolerance of their religious practices and protection of their Islamic state.  The common denominator between Muslims and the Orthodox Christians was both prayed in song several times per day starting at dawn and finishing at sunset.  The one major legacy of the Ottoman Empire in modern day Turkey as we know it is the non-conformists who follow secularism don’t believe a person with a religious faith should be given special consideration from the state.  From the beginning of time until the end, religion is the property of the people and of God.

"Turkish Toleration." http://www.globaled.org/nyworld/materials/ottoman/turkish.html (accessed December 10, 2011).

"Ottoman Empire (1301-1922)." April 09, 2009. http://www.bbc.co.uk/religion/religions/islam/history/ottomanempire_1.shtml (accessed December 10, 2011).

"THE MILLET SYSTEM IN THE NINETEENTH-CENTURY OTTOMAN EMPIRE." April 03, 2007. http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1478-1913.1967.tb01260.x/abstract (accessed December 10, 2011).

"The Ottoman Empire 1700-1922." http://www.transanatolie.com/english/turkey/Turkey PDF/ottoman empire-1700-1922-(accessed December 10, 2011).

Elias , Habesci. The Present State Of The Ottoman Empire. Kessinger Publishing, LLC, 2009. http://www.goodreads.com/book/show/7564333-the-present-state-of-the-ottoman-empire (accessed December 10, 2011).

Introduction of the Ottoman Empire

The Ottoman Empire began in earnest in 1299 in the river valley of Sakarya, upon the death of Ertugrul.  Osman, his beloved politically inclined son established the Ottoman Empire by creating a confederation of the Turkish tribes connected by their shared Islamic faith and urgent passion to spread their religious beliefs. He declared himself the first Sultan.  He was the beginning of the driving force that lasted for six centuries.  During their reign of dominance, they began with the severely weakened Sultanate of Selijuq run by Persians of Anatolia and equated with the downfall of the Byzantine Empire.  The Ottoman Empire was so powerfully organized in its attacks and methodology of control that it singlehandedly changed the power of a singular Christian European society to an Islamic direction.  Charles Darwin so aptly stated,” Remember what risks the nations of Europe ran, not so many centuries ago of being overwhelmed by the Turks.”

The Ottoman Empire was one of the most populous and longest empires known in our history.  It was purely encouraged by Islam and Islamic institutions. At the height of its power, it contained 29 provinces and controlled territory in Southeast Europe, Western Asia, and North Africa.

The Ottoman Empire’s jurisdiction permitted the unification of culturally and religiously different groups.  Their system was broken into three court categories; Muslims, non Muslims with appointed Christians and Jewish, and the trade court.  They also accepted the religious law over their peoples, entailing Judaism, Sharia, and Canon which was the Christian law.  All of this was regulated by the administrative Kanun law system by the Turks.  Of course, the Ottoman laws favored Muslims.  Christians and Jews were not treated the same and considered beneath them.  They had the right to worship but also had to pay higher taxes than Muslims.  One of the greatest horrific atrocities was the mass murder in the hundreds of thousands of Christian Armenians during the decline of the Ottoman Empire.  Elliot Engel quotes, “On the eve of World War I, an estimated two million Armenians lived in the Ottoman Empire. Well over one million were deported and hundreds of thousands simply killed.”

Lutheranism 2

Why Did Lutheranism Appeal to the Princes?

Martin Luther was a Saxon monk who had very set ideas against the Papacy.  Quite simply, he rejected the authority of the pope and insisted the Bible was the sole truth to follow.  He was a charismatic, powerful speaker who was passionate in his beliefs, and authored his publications of his sermons primarily to the universities and then the masses.  His viewpoint realistically demonstrated the controlling and corrupt power of the Catholic Church such as selling indulgences for profit and no serious repentance as one example.  His appeal was so strong, it didn’t take much for the people to agree there was mass corruption in the Church and they were fed up with the excessive fees thrust upon them.  To reach as many people as he could with his message, he wrote his pamphlets and sermons in the local German dialect so that even the simplest could understand.  He also put great emphasis on the fact the Church’s motivation towards the Germans was to exploit and use them rather than save them.  Of course, the German princes realized at once by following Lutheranism they could have absolute power over their own people and territories.

Long before Martin Luther came around, the princes had been trying to establish independence from the Church and have more power in their favor.  They had already lost quite a bit of respect for the authority of the Papacy due to a series of weak popes and didn’t want to continue paying taxes to them. When Lutheranism came about, it was hugely appealing to the Germans because he preached the Spanish and French controlled the Catholic Church and its corruption, leaving the Germans out of any decision making and forced to pay taxes to them.  However, by following his theory on religion, they had a powerful voice. When the princes converted to Lutheranism, they now had more authority over their own territories giving them more liberties and power over their civilians.

The converted Lutheran princes no longer had to send revenue as a tribute to Rome, therefore they didn’t have to collect Church fees from their citizens. This increased the wealth of their kingdoms as they could conserve the money for better usage instead of sending it for taxes to Rome. Furthermore, Lutheranism allowed the princes to confiscate monasteries which automatically increased their power, wealth, and land.  This was due to the huge amounts of money saved that were being spent on these communities.

From a religious point of view, the princes devoutly believed Martin Luther’s educated theory that a great number of the Catholic Church’s beliefs were incorrect.  One example, Luther believed God’s grace would be won by faith; while the Church felt it could only be won by good work.  In the 59 Theses, he also wrote, “Jesus is the only true head of the Church, not the pope.” The other significant point was that ‘indulgences are sinful and do not buy the way into heaven but simply provide revenue for the Church.’  These points had such a profound impact on people that many Catholics who had blindly believed their entire lives the teachings of the Church; converted to Lutheranism in an effort to save their souls and continue their journey to heaven.  The princes and the masses genuinely believed Lutheranism was the only way to save their souls.

The converted Lutheran princes empowered their political freedom.  They could now appoint their own ministers – thus ending the power struggles with the local bishops.  As fighting for authority ended, this gave the princes more power.

During the 1525 Peasant uprising, Luther was mortified.  He believed in the doctrine of two governments; our spiritual souls managed by the Holy Spirit under Christ, and the laws of worldly government that pertain to our life on earth.  In this case, the princes were the worldly government. Martin Luther supported the princes by quoting the Bible’s New Testament stating “God expects Christians to obey their princes obsolete.”  In their uprising against the princes, Luther accused them of three serious charges; they violated their oath of loyalty to their rulers, they robbed, destroyed, and murdered like animals, and were subject to death in this life and the hereafter, and finally they committed their crimes using Christ’s name; thereby blatantly defaming God.  He was outraged and felt the devil had taken hold of them.  From the peasants’ perspective, using violence against the aristocracy was their way of getting noticed in their efforts for a fairer share of the kingdoms profits.  They were sick and tired of the constant struggle of poverty.

In conclusion, Martin Luther had no idea how widespread his puritan philosophy would spread.  Even the Roman Catholic Church didn’t take his sermons seriously until it was too late.  By the time they decided to act upon it, his Lutheranism begun in Germany had spread to other countries as well.  The once powerful Church was steeped in corruption by its administration.  In the end, people had a choice of remaining a Catholic or relocating to an area where they practiced being a Lutheran or Protestant.  People were more independent of their knowledge of the Bible and came to their own conclusions in their translations of the Holy Book.  The money that used to go to the Church, the Lutherans could now use that money for their own territories.

My Diary (Conquistador)

This is my third entry since our arrival into Mexico November 8, 1519.  I now realize why my men and I were received so warmly by the Aztec people in Xoloco and especially Motecuhzomas.  It has become quite apparent how very superstitious these people are.  Due to the coloring of our skin and our mode of travel via ship; totally unknown to them, they thought us to be gods returning to them.  I believe the term we are referred to is Quetzalcoatll.  Whatever the reason, we are thoroughly enjoying the royal treatment.  I hope it doesn’t tear at my conscience my true reason for coming here and I will not rest until we complete our mission of conquering this extraordinary developed land.

Considering how very backward they appear from us, the metropolis they have built demonstrates their intelligence and artistic flair in their buildings, draw bridges, gardens, and the organization in which the marketplace was run. I am most impressed. Even the feathered masks and costumes they don during their festivals are intriguing.  Even though their weapons appear primitive, I can assure you they are most effective.  Today, I witnessed the head of a sheep sliced off in an instant with their most lethal weapon; the Macana, a paddle shaped club made of wood with sharp glass pieces all around it. We, on the other hand consider ourselves refined and superior with our horses, swords, cotton armor and leather shields.  Another thing I’ve taken note of; they are intensely religious towards a number of gods. It is my intention to conquer these barbarians, take their riches, and force them to become Christians.  Before I can accomplish this, I must capture a slave educated in their language to translate for me – preferably a woman.

Lutheranism

Why Did Lutheranism Appeal To The Princes?

Martin Luther was a Saxon monk who had very set ideas against the Papacy.  Quite simply, he rejected the authority of the pope and insisted the Bible was the sole truth to follow.  He was a charismatic, powerful speaker and authored his publications of his sermons at first primarily to the universities and then the masses.  His viewpoint realistically demonstrated the controlling and corrupt power of the Catholic Church such as selling indulgences for profit and no serious repentance as one example.  His appeal was so strong, it didn’t take much for the people to agree there was mass corruption in the Church and they were fed up with the excessive fees thrust upon them.  To reach as many people as he could with his message, he wrote his pamphlets and sermons in the local German dialect so that even the simplest could understand.  He also put great emphasis on the fact the Church’s motivation towards the Germans was to exploit and use them rather than save them.  Of course, the German princes realized at once by following Lutheranism they could have absolute power over their own people and territories.

The German princes who ruled territories in Northern Germany, used the controversial Lutheranism to their advantage by using it as a means of revolution against religion but also against the heavy handed political power of Rome and the Holy Roman Empire.  In proving their power as Lutherans, the German princes wasted no time in shutting down the monasteries in their territories which brought them wealth and land.

Doing away with the constant power struggles with the Roman Catholic Church, the German princes appointed their own ministers in place of the existing bishops.  This helped them politically.  Without the Catholic Church in place, the princes had sole power over how the dues and taxes against the German people should be exacted.

Most unfortunately for the princes, Lutheranism also brought about a social rebellion against their aristocratic power. In his earlier sermons, Luther had stated nowhere in the Bible does it say the Papacy has authority. The people made it clear the aristocrats didn’t have power either and they wanted a fair justice system whereas they wouldn’t have the heavy feudal dues and rents keeping them poor.  Mortified, Luther told them to read the New Testament of the Bible stating the Bible’s translation the people must follow the orders of the princes no matter how tough or impossible they were.  No matter what, a good Christian follows the orders of the government.  Luther had no choice but to give his full support to the princes against the peasant rebellion of 1525.

Now that they were Lutherans, and their ties to the Roman Catholic Church were severed, the princes used the taxes and dues charged against their people to their advantage.  Simply put, more money for them.  It was enthralling to have the power and riches the Church once had from their people.

Martin Luther firmly believed the pope was God’s caretaker over all of the people and he was not doing his job properly.  Politics and greed ran heavily throughout the Roman Catholic Church. Luther preached that man must follow his Lord God only and not worship a pope who is human.  He further stated a person who has committed a crime no matter how big or small must genuinely be repentant to clear your soul once you die.  Simply paying the bishops wasn’t going to clear you with God.  You had to be genuinely sorry.  The Church felt they were the only body allowed to translate the Holy Bible.  Luther encouraged every literate man, woman, and child to read the Bible for themselves and come to their own conclusions about what is right and wrong and follow the commandments.

In conclusion, Martin Luther had no idea how widespread his puritan philosophy would spread.  Even the Roman Catholic Church didn’t take his sermons seriously until it was too late.  By the time they decided to act upon it, his Lutheranism begun in Germany had spread to other countries as well.  The once powerful Church was steeped in corruption by its administration.  In the end, people had a choice of remaining a Catholic or relocating to an area where they practiced being a Lutheran or Protestant.  People were more independent of their knowledge of the Bible and came to their own conclusions in their translations of the Holy Book.  The money that used to go to the Church, the Lutherans could now use that money for their own territories.

Video - Michelangelo

Effects of the Crusades

The six officially organized Crusades designed to free Jerusalem and the Holy Land from the Muslims (Turks) caused a vast number of critical changes in Europe as a result. Three of the most significant were:  Politics, Intellectual development, Commerce

 Politics – The Crusades won four times and lost it all each time due to military and political ineptitude.  After the Crusades, Byzantium was destroyed as a first rate power with the ousting of Constantinople and the loss of Anatolia from the Turks.  The Turks used Constantinople for three centuries before taking it.  The Crusades also helped in breaking down the power of the feudal aristocracy and gave a clear distinction to the kings and people.  A great deal of property was given to the crown from thousands of nobles that died on foreign soil without heirs.  The cities also gained numerous political advantages at the expense of crusading noblemen. In the 12^th and 13^th century, the burgher class now had ready money for contributions.  In return, they received special privileges.

Intellectual Development – The crusaders regardless how poor or uneducated they were, spread the word by the hundreds of thousands how glorious the East was.  They opened Europe’s eyes to the wonders and advantages of travelling to a land they could never conceive of before and enjoy and learn the manners and delightful array of possessions of these strange little people.  They were in awe at the idea of trading their goods for those of Asia.

Commerce – Due to the Crusaders original travels, a permanent demand for the transportation of men and goods was created.  Ship building was a must for transporting to and from the far East to Europe.  The ships carried products from glorious cities of Damascus, Mosul, Cairo, and others across the Mediterranean to the Italian seaports and into all of Europe.  The silks, tapestries, perfumes, spices pearls and ivory were considered heaven from the East.

Other changes included:

Catholic Church – The Catholic Church held a death grip on literally everything.  The Crusades empowered her even further by increasing her wealth and papal authority.  For the thousands preparing for the pilgrimage, in exchange for prayers gladly signed their estates and other worldly goods over to the Church for a pittance of its actual worth.  To maintain its tight grip over the lands, the Church was quite cunning in obtaining as much money as possible.

Feudalism – For hundreds of years feudalism was predicated on the king granting a division of land to nobles and others in return for their military service.  At that time, land was the primary source for the economy.  To finance their crusading expedition, literally thousands of barons and knights mortgaged and sold their land.  Sadly, thousands died in Syria and their estates automatically went to the crown because they lacked an heir. 

Social – Because of the crusades those that survived with the exception of war, thoroughly enjoyed experiencing new lands and the cultures of other people. The tales of their travels opened everyone’s eyes to the prospect of trying new tastes and wearing finer clothing.  Middle class began to grow because of the crusades ventures.  Eventually, when bartering for goods they began using currency with the foreign lands – thus ending feudalism.

Material Development – Even though the Crusades failed in their original endeavor, they had an indelible impact on western civilization by opening the eyes of the West to the alluring goods of the East. It was a new way of life, and thinking for Europe regarding art, manufacture, and inventions from Asia. Venice, Pisa, and Genoa especially blossomed in wealth and reputation due to their trade. The Mediterranean was filled with ships carrying cargo to and fro.

Voyages of Discovery – Because of the Crusades, adventurers such as Marco Polo were given the incentive of geographical discovery to explore even the most remote countries of Asia.  Eventually, the success of many inspired Columbus, Vasco de Gama, and Magellan to set out to all parts of the world to explore and conquer.

It is my humble opinion Commerce is the most significant point of the three I have chosen. Due to their amazing discoveries in the Middle Ages regarding what the East had to offer and acting upon it changed their civilization and made Italy a super-power for Europe.  Technology in transportation has vastly improved and we reap the benefits of transporting goods from all over the world to and from.